Direptio Syracuse (212 BC) from the statues and paintings, it was not the first such case in the world of republican Rome. However, for the first time a Roman general, in this case Mark Claudius Marcellus, exposed the spoils in such an expressive way, during ovatio in Rome. Thereby, he launched the „Hellenization of art” of ancient Rome. This article draws the attention to a number of factors relating to the looting of Greek art, which was becoming more and more popular during the first Punic War. Moreover, it focuses on the aesthetic changes in the Roman art in the third and second century BC.

Olsztyn Group has been formed in the later phase of the Migration Period (Phase E), developed in Masurian Lake District. This group had maintained lots of contacts with southern and western areas of Europe which can be proof, by the found goods of external origin. At the end-stage of Olsztyn Group (7th) round brooches with various ornament become popular. One of them was the brooches ornamented with the cross. Made of bronze and silver has in central part placed filigree cross or its imitation. These items are unique because that kind of ornament had been used in the western part of Europe in the area of upper Rhine. Popular among Franks, Alamans and Turings because dissemination of Christian religion. Strong believes about protective function of cross had been reason of placing it at ceramic and weapon by cultures of western Europe. The same symbol or its imitation had been used by culture at Mazurian Lakelands due the lack of union this kind of symbol with the local lands. Round brooches from Tumiany cannot be connected with influence of Christian mission. There is no evidence to support such a claim. Most likely, brooches with cross ornament had been used by citizens of Mazury as typical jewelry without connection with it religious meaning. But these artifacts may indicate extensive contacts with western Europe and earliest contacts with Christianity, in this part of the continent.

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The Tazyna river is one of not large Kuyavian tributaries of the Vistula river. A unique feature of this river catchment area is a very high degree of biodiversity. It comprises, among others, the co-occurrence of zones of various lithology and genesis (morainic plains, valleys with outwash plain formations, outwash plains with holes) and relatively shallow occurrence of salt deposits supplying the groundwater with brine. They are accompanied by the occurrence of halophytes. The discussed region also abounds in numerous archaeological sources dated to the Neolithic. They document complicated processes of the Tazyna basin domestication. They were initiated by the appearance of agricultural societies of the Linear Pottery culture exploiting the environment of soils with the highest agricultural values. These groups also made an attempt of “tactical” use of podzols environments, however, due to its failure within the following centuries, they concentrated on earlier exploited areas. A real breakthrough was brought by the occurrence of the Funnel Beaker culture societies. They were mainly interested in less abundant, hitherto not used in terms of economy, environments. Probably at that time brine springs were also exploited. An excellent example of a settlement from this period is Wilkostowo 23/24 – one of the best recognized complexes of „funnel beakers” in Europe. In the following centuries the Tazyna basin was the scene of activeness of societies realising more mobile („globular amphoras” and „corded ware”) economic strategies. The state of preservation and prospects of the Neolithic sites survival adversely correspond to the outstanding cognitive significance of the region under consideration. During the recent thirty – forty years a sharp increase of threats to part of them – especially to these located on the weakest soils (developed on sandy substratum) took place. Their areas are nowadays afforested, objects connected with vegetables storage are located on them, and they become purposes of minerals (sand, gravel) exploitation. In such a situation it is necessary to implement a local programme of protection of sites dated to the Neolithic. The author postulates that it should include verifying surface surveys, excavations and educational actions.

The article is to describe the metal monuments discovered in position No. 2 in Strobin (commune Konopnica) in the light of metallurgical studies. This treasure dates back to the V Bronze Age by. A. Montelius (H B3 by P. Reinecke) and comes with a fortified settlement of the Lusatian culture. Article is divided into several parts. The first of these is explained differences and definitions related to metallurgical studies. In a further describes the main components of alloys made of tin bronzes. The main components of bronze alloy is tin and copper. It is also described how the amount of tin and copper affect the quality and mechanical properties of the alloy. There are also important alloying elements that reduce or increase the quality and strength of the alloy. The next section describe the metallurgical test methods such as X-ray that allows for finding the defects in the metal. Another method which allows to determine the chemical composition of the alloy is spectral analysis. The next section describes the analysis of metallurgy treasure discovered in Strobin in 1982. It contained fragments of pottery and bronze objects, such as sickles, bracelets, nodules, necklaces, rings, pendants and one bead. The last part is presented the summary and conclusions.

The history of Sieciechów and located monuments on its area for over 140 years are the subject of intensive research by historians, architectural historians and archaeologists. Particular attention is drawn primarily researchers station called Mountain village mayors – a small (now almost totally destroyed) hill situated west of the center of today’s settlement, considered by some researchers for the location of the well-known from written sources castrum Sieciech. This article discusses how far unpublished materials relating to this position, which is a collection of 399 pieces of pottery derived from within two archaeological sites located in the southern part Wójtowa Mountains. Analysis of these artifakts has allowed the protrusion of a new and different about the current interpretation of the functional position. Now, as a result of the analysis of these materials, and correlating the information obtained in this way with the data on the stratigraphy of the hill, the view of past defensive been denied a Wójtowa Mountains. In the light of the development of this material in position to function only of an open settlement, and the chronology based on the analysis of the ceramic material, can be determined by the age XIII, XIV or early age. Presumably, discussed the settlement was destroyed by the Tartar invasion.

The Ammonites, a people living east of the Jordan River, were neighbors of the ancient Israelites. The Old Testament (1 Kings, 11,5; 2 Kings, 23,13) and probably an inscription from the citadel of Amman mention Milkom as the supreme God of the Ammonites. Most Ammonite names did not contain the name of their national god, but used a more generic divine name, ’El. We don’t know if the name: ’El refers to the Canaanite god or to a local manifestation of this deity. Ammonites also worshiped other deities (i.e. ‘Astarte, ‘Anat, Ba‘al, Hadad/’Adad, Qos, Šamas, YHWH and Yerah). A number of limestone statues and clay figurines of bearded individuals wearing an atef-crown could be Ammonite monarchs or deity (Milkom or ’El). An Ammonite sanctuary has been excavated in Rugm el-Kursi, situated north-west of Amman. Excavations at this site unearthed a rectangular building measuring 18,70 x 12,60 m. The orientation of the temple is east-west, with the entrance facing east. The Temple of Rugm el-Kursi is an important example of religious architecture in the Levant. It’s not just about the first Iron Age monumental temple in Ammon and in Jordan, but it is also the first excavated monumental sanctuary of the moon god in the Levant. The two reliefs on the door jambs depicted the full moon within the crescent and confirm that the moon god was worshiped there. Because of the reliefs the sanctuary has been dated to Iron Age II. The temple of Rugm el-Kursi was divided into two or in three rooms and belongs to the „Langraum” temple type, which is known in the region since the middle of the 3rd mill. BC.

The main purpose of this article is to demonstrate the possible continuity between early Palestinian cults reconstructed from anthropomorphic figurines and later beliefs. Figurines from the major archeological cultures including: Kebarian, Natufian or Yarmukian indicate a common ceremony of religious character, possibly connected with the cult of fertility. In this contexts particularly noteworthy is so-called „Ain Sakhiri Lovers” figurine which is unique and interpreted as showing a sexual intercourse. By presenting some of the types of early Palestinian anthropomorphic figurines, the author would like to discuss possible connections between earliest artifacts of probable religious meaning with documented religious systems.

Paintings revealed in the Assumption of Holy Virgin Mary church in Lubecko during the conservation works have been pre-dated to the beginning of 15th century. However, after military parts shown on the painting were analyzed, this doens’t seem to be true anymore. All of depicted soldiers wear full plate armours, composed of plate legs and arms protection some of which have gilded protection parts on their joints. Breastplates are rounded and have radiate cannelures. Soldiers’ hips are covered with skirts with foil tassels. That type of breastplates as mentioned above appeared twice in known history of armament: in 2nd half of 15th century and in turn of 15th and 16th. Foil tassels suggest rather that second period. This is the type of armour that was popular in that time; numerous tombstones, examples of iconography and single preserved parts of armours are the proof here. There are few types of helmets shown on the painting: kettle hats, simple shallow skull caps and rare kind of helmet similar to findings from Torun and Mielno – storczhelme/pekilhube. All pieces of weapon are depicted as schematically as armours. It is worth to notice that swords have pointy forms, good for stabbing. The most interesting one, handled by one of angels, has an even-armed cross-shaped pommel. Additionaly to swords, there are also halberds, hammer-axe and misericorde. Wholeness of the armament seems to be typical for the gothic period. It is highly likely that the author portrayed the reality he knew.

Images of emperors of Julio-Claudian dynasty and especially the most famous representation of Octavian Augustus of Prima Porta, became the prototype representation of emperors-officers for the representatives of the next dynasty wielding Roman Empire. Statue of Augustus, no doubt modeled on Doryphoros – a statue made by Polykleitos (sculptor-foundry of classical Greek era) is an example of the propaganda image of the emperor. Statua loricata – a statue of Octavian in the breastplate – presents emperor during adlocutio – speech addressed to the army. Models of classical Greek sculpture exhibit at the statue of the emperor by using position called contrapposto and deification of the emperor by showing him barefoot. Among other things, lack of shoes indicates that the statue of Octavian was made after the death of the ruler. The divine pedigree of the emperor was also marked by the attributes that are on his right leg – Cupid and dolphin. Head of Augustus was also performed on the model Doryphoros, and its distinctive hairstyle is defined as a „Primaporta” type. The most important element of the Prima Porta statue of the emperor is his breastplate. Armor classified as a torso cuirass is here as long type – with the downward extension, meant to protect the lower abdominal part. Armor probably originally made of leather, on the statue of Octavian is very richly decorated with historical and mythological reliefs. In the central part of the armor was shown a scene that shows the Parthians transferring military signs (signum militare) that have been lost by Marcus Crassus in 53 BC. On both sides of middle scene, were placed two women – personifications of lands conquered by Rome. The whole presentation is observed by the images of deities: Tellus Mater – Mother of Earth, Apollo, Diana, the god of the Sun – Sol, goddess of the moon – Luna and the God of heaven – Caelus. Statue of Augustus from Prima Porta combines classical designs of sculptures of Polykleitos period and contemporary elements of the propaganda of the imperial policy of the Augustus principate. Sculpture showing the first emperor of the Roman Empire, dressed in breastplate has become an example image of the rulers shown as the leaders of the army but also showing the immense power of propaganda policy.

Jedna z bardziej prestizowych form uhonorowania czlonków rodziny panujacej, w okresie rzadów Augusta, bylo wystawienie na ich czesc posagów. W niniejszym artykule skoncentrowalem sie na wybranych przykladach posagów dedykowanych Gajuszowi i Lucjuszowi Cezarom, wnukom i adoptowanym synom Augusta, które fundowano na ich czesc w Rzymie oraz na terenie prowincji. Przedmiotem mojego zainteresowania byl przede wszystkim kontekst historyczny oraz okolicznosci wystawienia tych posagów, a takze z czyjej inicjatywy zostaly one ufundowane. Z przeprowadzonej analizy wynika, ze powody wystawienia posagu mogly byc rózne. Jednym z nich bylo np. wlozenie togi meskiej (toga virilis) przez synów Augusta, z czym wiazalo sie oficjalne rozpoczecie przez nich kariery politycznej. Impulsu do ufundowania wielu posagów honoryfikacyjnych dostarczyla równiez wizyta Gajusza na terenie prowincji wschodnich. Mieszkancy tamtejszych regionów podkreslali w ten sposób swoja lojalnosc i sympatie dla dynastii panujacej. W przewazajacej mierze inicjatorem wystawienia grup statuarycznych ku czci obu braci na terenie prowincji byli przedstawiciele lokalnych elit lub miejscowe wladze (Rada, Zgromadzenie). Nie mamy zadnych podstaw, aby zakladac jakakolwiek ingerencje w tym wzgledzie ze strony cesarza, badz senatu. Wydaje sie, ze mieszkancy prowincji byli doskonale zorientowani w tym, w jaki sposób wypada uhonorowac najwazniejszych przedstawicieli domus Augusta. O wysokiej randze tych zaszczytów swiadczy m.in to, gdzie sytuowano omawiane posagi. Byly one najczesciej stawiane w najbardziej prestizowych miejscach miast Italii i prowincji, takich jak: agora, teatr, czy swiatynia. W taki sposób honorowano jedynie cesarza oraz najblizszych czlonków dynastii panujacej. Zapoczatkowany w okresie pryncypatu Augusta zwyczaj wystawiania na czesc nastepców tronu posagów honoryfikacyjnych, stal sie za rzadów kolejnych cesarzy z dynastii julijsko-klaudyjskiej powszechna praktyka.

The cemetery in Sadzarzewice (former Sadersdorf) is one of the most important archaeological sites in Lower Lusatia and it dates back to the pre-Roman and Roman iron ages. It was included into the Luboszyce culture by Grzegorz Domanski in his work from 1979. Along with two other cemeteries, located nearby in Grabice and Luboszyce, the Sadzarzewice complex constitutes the oldest chronological horizon of this taxonomic group, and the region is regarded as the starting point of its later expansion. Despite the site’s great significance for the prehistory studies of the Oder basin, its state of study is far from satisfactory. This is mostly due to the fact it was discovered and explored at the end of the XIXth century, that is in the time archaeological methods were still in development. Further complication was caused by the history of the region – nearly all of the artifacts were lost during WWII, and as an effect, the cemetery’s inventory is known only from a publication dating back to 1895. Nevertheless, during my research for my dissertation on the armament of the Luboszyce culture, I managed to identify a couple of those lost finds. This small group consisted of an ornamented spearhead, an untypical javelin- or arrowhead, and a shield grip. The total number of Roman iron age weapon and equestrian equipment finds from the cemetery is 41 – 4 swords, 2 sword scabbard belt loops, 2 axes, 6 spearheads, 2 javelin heads, 7 arrowheads, 4 shield bosses, 2 shield grips and 12 spurs. The artifacts from Sadzarzewice fit into the phase B2b–C2 (late 2nd–3rd cent. A.D.) range. Those weapons that were possible to date with considerable precision can be situated within the phase C1, some even can be as old as B2b, although there is no certain evidence of such early chronology. Another notable feature of the Sadzarzewice artifacts is the evidence of various interregional influences – either from the West (the Elbian circle) and East (the Wielbark and Przeworsk cultures) which phenomenon, although characteristic for the Luboszyce culture in general, is best observed in the early stages of this unit’s development.

The armament from the Luboszyce culture is a true mix of influences coming either from the West, East or even the North. The contacts with the last of these have already been mentioned in the publications dealing with the cultural processes in the basins of middle Oder and Elbe rivers, however, in none of them was the true intensity of this phenomenon emphasized with proper strength. The purpose of this article is to change this situation by focusing on the category of shafted weapons’ heads. Scandinavianlike artifacts of this type from the territory of the Luboszyce culture are dated mostly within the C1b and C2 periods. However, some single loose (and thereby devoid of reliable context) finds that represent the head types of lesser chronological sensitivity might even be positioned as early as the phase C1a, while others as late as phase C3. The overall number of northern type spearheads is 19 from the total of 102 finds of this weapon category from the culture in question, which brings a strong 18% ratio. As far as javelin heads are concerned (3 are known from the discussed territory), all of tchem show Scandinavian influence. This means that the population of the Luboszyce culture maintained really intense contacts with the North in the very time of the unrests that led to the creation of the Danish bog deposits. In the discussed group of artifacts one peculiar feature can be observed. Many of the Scandinavian - like spearheads have a conic (or pyramid) – shaped area of transition between the socket and the leaf. Similar elements can be observed in late roman period spearheads both from the Northern circle and Przeworsk culture, but in either case they are rather infrequent. Within the Luboszyce culture spearheads with the mentioned feature constitute a 10% of the whole weapon category, while among Scandinavianinfluenced artifacts they fetch a 37%. This means that conic/pyramid - shaped socket/leaf transition is far more widespread among northern type spearheads from the Luboszyce culture than they are in genuine Scandinavian contexts. All these peculiarities deserve further, intensive and in-depth studies. Let’s hope further excavations and new finds as well as new research (including laboratory methods such as metallographic examination) of the existing artifacts will enable us to understand their significance better.

The cemetery in Kosewo (former Kossewen, Kr. Sensburg; from 1938, Rechenberg) is one of the largest known necropolises dated to the Roman and Migration Periods found in the Mazurian Lakeland. The site was accidentally discovered during the construction works of the road linking Mragowo with Mikolajki in 1887. Even though a large numer of features was discovered at the cemetery in Kosewo, only single finds or assemblages from that site have been published. At the cemetery in Kosewo there were pit and urn burials. The pit burials contained, besides the remains of the deceased, also the remains of the pyre. The predominant burial type were urn graves. Among the 728 recorded burials the majority were urn graves, amounting to 611. It seems justifiable to assume that in the Olsztyn group the urn graves were generally predominant, with some local departures from the custom. We may also say that the graves from the late Migration Period were deposited closer to the Surface than the ones from the Roman Period. This phenomenon has been also recorded at the other cemeteries of the Olsztyn Group. In the eastern part of the area settled by the Olsztyn Group, in which the Kosewo cemeteries are located, the burial grounds were usually made in the same places as the necropolises of the Bogaczewo culture. Large cemeteries used only in the Late Migration Period are exceptional. Graves from Phase E usually did not disturb the earlier burials, but at the cemetery in Kosewo this happened quite often. Basing on the research conducted so far it is possible to state that the graves from the Olsztyn Group were usually located in separate clusters located away from the graves from the Roman Period or only slightly overlapping with them. In the urn graves of the Olsztyn Group the urns are sometimes covered with overturned bowl- or plate-shaped vessels, or beakers with hollow stems. No stone linings, pavements, or cist graves have been registered. Also no horse graves, which can be found in Mazuria of the Roman and Migration Periods, have been discovered at the cemetery in Kosewo. The cemetery yielded some finds of weapons in the assemblages dated to Phase E. The decline of the Olsztyn Group is connected with the disappearance of archaeologically recordable burial rites. The change of the form of the burial rite probably did not concern cremation, which is recorded for the Prussian tribes from the Early Middle Ages. The change of the burial rites probably consisted in the introduction of a different form of deposition of the burials. Also at the cemetery in Kosewo no materials later than the 7th century have been recorded. The necropolis may have been abandoned or the way of depositing the burials was changed. The question about the final stages of use of the Olsztyn Group cemeteries may be answered by further investigations.

Although alembics, erstwhile distilling-apparatus, are deeply rooted in Polish traditional culture, they have not been yet analysed separately. Ceramic and glass alembics, rarely being discovered during excavations within Poland, are also seldom published. Therefore using Western European studies seems to be necessary to amend that state of being. The case study on distilling-apparatus from France and Great Britain, which was used in the article, has been compiled by S. Moorhouse and N. Thomas. They presented morphologic traits of the devices: vaporizer – distilling-base or cucurbit used for heating the raw material, and alembic – a still-head with collecting-channel and spout. The authors also described industrial, kitchen and alchemical use of the devices. Based on the morphological traits, 3 types of ceramic and glass alembics were established, and presented in the article. Article uses findings already published, focuses on preliminary issues and is an attempt on introducing the reader to the matter of former distilling-apparatus. Amongst sources published in Poland one should distinguish graphics from Marcin Siennik’s Herbarz, to iest ziól tutecznych y zamorskich opisanie, Polish 16th century herbarium, fragments of pottery distilling-base from the knight’s stronghold from Mymon, Podkarpackie Voivodeship and alembic from castle in Puck, Pomeranian Voivodeship. The latter, although ceramic, represents advanced type of distilling-apparatus with an external cooling system – removable pipe, placed in the barrel with water. Amongst instalations associated with alembics, one should mention special furnaces (athanors), ember dispensers and receivers for distillate. Another fact worth mentioning is that distilling-apparatus could be luted with a special alchemical clay, recipe of which is known from Renaissance herbarium by Marcin Siennik. Alchemical utensils were frequently placed in a separate room, especially in pharmacies and distilleries. Distilling-apparatus, artefacts heretofore neglected in Poland, could help in development of studies in the history of chemistry and complement an image of cultural space in pre-industrial Central Europe.

This paper focuses on the appearance and dress of two important to medieval Silesia persons, duke Louis II of Brzeg-Legnica and his second wife, Elisabeth of Hohenzollern. Our reconstruction is based on three preserved medieval polychromes depicting the duke, and on his tombstone. Relics of the tomb, sculptures of duke Louis and his wife Elisabeth, are exhibited in the Cathedral Church of St Peter and St Paul in Legnica. Polychromes believed to be images of Louis II are in parish churches of Strzelniki, Krzyzowice and in St Nicholas Church in Brzeg. They were painted by the so called Master of Adoration of the Magi - skilled artist probably brought to Silesia by duke Louis II from Burgundy or Flanders. After examining duke’s clothes from the paintings, we come to the conclusion, that there are two different types of dress he was supposed to wear. Both splendid but short, barely reaching knees. One seems to be tightly fitted at chest and flared at waist. This kind of dress is often called jopula. The other dress is wide and loose, pulled in at waist with a belt. It has also wide sleeves decorated with a cut-out in a shape of oak leaves. This sort of dress is very similar to the gown which was quite popular in medieval Western Europe and we know it as houppelande. In both cases costume is completed with underdress, tight hoses, over ankle shoes, crown and a few other details. Our graphical representation of these attires is introduced on the illustration no. 12 and no.13. The only preserved image of the duchess Elizabeth is her tombstone. Closer look at it brings us many interesting conclusions. The most significant one is that duchess’s clothes were for many years misinterpreted. Her gown was considered to be a surcot (dress without sleeves, deeply cut under armholes), whilst it occurs to be underdress covered with tails of a garment resembling modern coat, with elbow length sleeves and without fastening. Schematic drawing no. 21 shows our interpretation of duchess’s attire. However, the data are not sufficient to create a reliable reconstruction of her apparel. We are hoping that our obsevation will help to stress the importance of comparative.

„Tygodnik Ilustrowany” was one of the most important magazines in Warsaw in the 2nd half of nineteenth century. From the first issues of the magazine there is information about the national Antiquities. The reports of foreign Antiquities began to appear in the 2nd half of 1860s, and since then their number is steadily increasing. Most texts describing the discovery and ancient monuments were in the 1880s. Individual articles have appeared in the 1890s. At the beginning of the twentieth century once again increased the number of texts about Antiquities. Archaeological issues are not just confined to the news about the excavations. In „Tygodnik” placed biographies of scholars and collectors. Informed about exhibitions and museums that collect artifacts from the ancient times. Has also been reported same artifacts. There were also reprints articles in foreign languages. They were in the section „Artykuly tresci naukowej, z innych pismiennictw czerpane”. Small foreign reports of findings were published in „Ze swiata obcego” edited by Mscislawa Edgara Trepke (Toporczyka), and later in the „Kronika Powszechna”. At this time the authors of the articles represented a variety of disciplines.

This thesis is an anthropological analysis of an early-medieval population, inhabiting the area of Stregoborzyce village, Igolomia-Wawrzenczye commune, Malopolska province. The subjects of research were skeletons of 67 individuals, which were dug during archaeological excavations on site number 38 in Stregoborzyce, in years 2010 and 2011. Among the 67 skeletons of different state of preservation there were isolated 22 females, 17 males, 4 children and 24 individuals of unknown sex. Basic research included determining the age and sex of the individuals and the state of preservation of skeletal remains. Author did some cranial and postextracranial skeleton measurements, which allowed doing an anthropological characterization of the population and estimating a hypothetical intravital body length of each individual. The evaluation of health conditions was taken on the basis of pathological changes in bone material, which are an expression of previous diseases and degenerative processes. The thesis also focused on the examination of the presence of non-metric characteristics of the human skeleton. At the end author tried to do a comparison analysis of the population to other groups, similar in time and geography.